Blood transfusion is now a common and life-saving procedure. It is a measure used to restore blood volume after extensive bleeding, burns, or trauma; to improve the blood's oxygen carrying capacity when haemoglobin levels are low in anaemia; and to combat shock (which is due to a low blood circulation). But transfusion could not become a useful or safe procedure until blood groups were discovered (the first system to be identified was ABO in 1900).

The South American Incas apparently practised successful transfusions, but they are nearly all of the same blood type (O+), so incompatibility reactions must have been few. In Europe such reactions were so common and life threatening, that transfusions were banned in France, England and Italy after the late 17th century. Only in this century did transfusion become a useful measure, though at first the method was very slow. The doctor had to determine the blood types of the patient's relatives and friends until the proper type was found. He then performed a crossmatch and the transfusion was given by directly linking the vein of the donor with that of the recipient. Blood was occasionally transfused in this way during World War I, but three quarters of a pint was considered a large amount.

In 1914 it was discovered that sodium citrate could be added to freshly drawn blood to prevent clotting, and during the war, the fact that blood could be stored outside the body for later use was established. In peacetime further major advances were slow. The continuous drip method in which blood flows from a flask was not established until 1935 ( at the Middlesex hospital in London). The increasing frequency and volume of blood transfusions was demanding adequate blood storing facilities - blood banks. The first tentative steps were taken in the 1930's in both Russia and America, but it took the Second World War for these to become organised on a large scale. In this development, Charles Drew was a major pioneer.

1. Find out and write down the meaning of these words: trauma, haemoglobin, anaemia
2. Why was blood transfusion successful amongst the Incas, but not in Europe in the early 17^th century?
3. What discovery eventually allowed blood transfusion to be possible early this century?
4. Why would the early methods of transfusion be useless to us today?
5. What kind of human activity made research into blood transfusion happen very quickly?

Charles Richard Drew (1904 - 1950) was an American, one of five children born and brought up in Washington. He was a very good athlete at school and University, playing basketball and football, and competing in swimming and athletics track events. He became interested in science and medicine and after his university studies he became a surgeon and professor of medicine. He specialised in the preservation of human blood for later use in transfusions. Whole blood can be stored for only a limited time, but Drew demonstrated that if the components are separated, the blood plasma could be stored in a frozen state. His expertise led to his appointment as director of the medical division of the British Blood Transfusion Association and of the American Red Cross Blood Bank during World War II. He was internationally recognised as a leading authority on blood banks and he received many awards. He died in 1950 following a car accident.

1. Find out and write down the meaning of these words: expurgated, professor, blood plasma.
2. Write IN YOUR OWN WORDS five sentences describing the kind of man Charles Drew seems to be from this passage.

Drew was a black American and his family home was in a black ghetto. Many times in his life he met with racist rejection.

While at University, his athletics team went to a hotel after a match, but the hotel refused to serve black members of the team.

He became surgeon and Professor at Howard University School of Medicine in Washington D.C. This University had been established in 1867 and was named after one of its founders, General Otis Howard. Howard had fought on the victorious Union side in the American Civil War (1861 - 1865) and became unusually interested in the welfare of black people who had been freed from slavery during the war. He helped to build hospitals and started many schools for black people. Howard's University in Washington was open for any students, but was founded with a special obligation to provide advanced studies for black people.

In World War II, Drew's Red Cross set up blood donor centres. However, the Army said that it would not let black peoples blood be used on the soldiers. After considerable protest, blood from black people was collected, but kept separate from white people's blood.

On April 1^st 1950, Drew was badly injured in a car accident at Burlington, North Carolina. In desperate need of a blood transfusion he was rushed to the nearest hospital. The hospital was using his discoveries, but turned him away because he was black. He died on the way to a hospital for blacks.

1. Find out and write down the meaning of the words: unexpurgated, ghetto.
2. Look back at how you have described Charles Drew from what you read in the previous section. Have your ideas changed? If so, explain how they are now different.
3. What emotions or feelings do you have after reading this passage? Try to write five things that you feel.

So far this is the account of a fascinating and fruitful life, but there is another side to Drew's story.

Drew was a black American and his family home was in a black ghetto. Many times in his life he met with racist rejection.

While at University, his athletics team went to a hotel after a match, but the hotel refused to serve black members of the team.

He became surgeon and Professor at Howard University School of Medicine in Washington D.C. This University had been established in 1867 and was named after one of its founders, General Otis Howard. Howard had fought on the victorious Union side in the American Civil War (1861 - 1865) and became unusually interested in the welfare of black people who had been freed from slavery during the war. He helped to build hospitals and started many schools for black people. Howard's University in Washington was open for any students, but was founded with a special obligation to provide advanced studies for black people.

In World War II, Drew's Red Cross set up blood donor centres. However, the Army said that it would not let black peoples blood be used on the soldiers. After considerable protest, blood from black people was collected, but kept separate from white people's blood.

On April 1^st 1950, Drew was badly injured in a car accident at Burlington, North Carolina. In desperate need of a blood transfusion he was rushed to the nearest hospital. The hospital was using his discoveries, but turned him away because he was black. He died on the way to a hospital for blacks.

1. Find out and write down the meaning of the words: unexpurgated, ghetto.
2. Look back at how you have described Charles Drew from what you read in the previous section. Have your ideas changed? If so, explain how they are now different.
3. What emotions or feelings do you have after reading this passage? Try to write five things that you feel.